نوع مقاله : علمی- پژوهشی

نویسندگان

1 دانشجوی دکتری بخش تاریخ، دانشکدۀ ادبیات و علوم‌انسانی، دانشگاه شیراز، شیراز، ایران.

2 دانشیار بخش تاریخ، دانشکدۀ ادبیات و علوم‌انسانی، دانشگاه شیراز، شیراز، ایران

3 استاد بخش تاریخ، دانشکدۀ ادبیات و علوم‌انسانی، دانشگاه شیراز، شیراز، ایران

چکیده

تأسیس امپراتوری مغول به‌عنوان بزرگ‌ترین امپراتوری پیوستۀ تاریخ، تأثیر عمیقی بر مناطق فتح‌شده برجای نهاد و در بسیاری از آن‌ها مشخصۀ پایان یک عصر تاریخی بود. مطالعات نوین امپراتوری مغول از زوایای متعارضی شامل تاریخ، سیاست، فرهنگ و تأثیر مغولان بر جهانی است که فتح کرده بودند. ازآن‌جایی که بررسی امپراتوری مغول، عمری سی‌صد ساله دارد، مسئله‌ای دربارۀ تفاوت‌های رویکردی و روشی طرح می‌شود که در بررسی امپراتوری به کار رفته‌اند. بررسی تاریخِ تاریخ‌نگاری حاضر با قراردادن آثار پژوهشی امپراتوری مغول در بافتار تاریخی و سیاسی دوره‌ای که نوشته می‌شدند، به صورت‌بندی فرایند تحولات روشی و فکری‌ای پرداخته که در مطالعۀ تاریخی امپراتوری به کار رفته‌اند. یافته‌های مقاله نشان می‌دهد که از انتشار نخستین آثار تاریخی در سدۀ هجدهم، روایت غیر نقادانۀ مبتنی‌بر وحشی‌گری مغولی که با ایدۀ شهریار روشنگر ترکیب شده بود، قرائت اصلی را تشکیل می‌داده است. در عین حال در سدۀ بیستم، تاریخ‌نگاری مارکسیستی شوروی بر مناسبات طبقاتی و تحول اجتماعی مغولان دست می‌گذاشت. هم‌زمان با فروپاشی شوروی، آثار جدیدی در بریتانیا و آمریکا نوشته شدند که با موج جهانی‌شدن و نفی قرائت‌های مبتنی‌بر تخریب مغولی در آثار پیشین، به بررسی تبادلات جهانی و ادغام فرهنگی و اقتصادی و شکل‌گیری تجارت بین‌المللی در امپراتوری مغول پرداختند. مقالۀ تاریخ‌نگارانۀ حاضر با رویکرد توصیفی‌تحلیلی و با حفظ خط زمانی، رویکردها و روش‌هایی را ارزیابی می‌کند که در سی‌صد سال گذشته در مطالعۀ امپراتوری مغول به کار گرفته شده‌اند و به ارائۀ یک صورت‌بندی نقادانه از آن‌ها می‌پردازد.

کلیدواژه‌ها

موضوعات

عنوان مقاله [English]

The “Bon Sauvage” and the Man of the Millennium: A Historiography of Western Studies on the Mongol Empire

نویسندگان [English]

  • Arash Yousefi 1
  • Ahmad Fazlinejad 2
  • Abdolrasul Kheirandish 3

1 PhD Candidate in History. Shiraz University. Shiraz. Iran.

2 Associate Professor. Shiraz University. Shiraz. Iran

3 Professor at Faculty of History in Shiraz University, Shiraz. Iran

چکیده [English]

The establishment of the Mongol Empire, the largest contiguous empire in history, had a profound impact on the conquered regions and marked the end of a historical era for many of them. Modern studies of the Mongol Empire look at it from conflicting perspectives including history, politics, culture, and the Mongols' impact on the conquered world. Since the study of the Mongol Empire spans three centuries, there are different approaches and methods to examine it. This historiographical study places the research on the Mongol Empire in the historical and political context of the period in which it was written, and articulates the methodological and intellectual developments that have been applied to the historical study of the empire. The findings show that since the first historical works in the 18th century, the main interpretation has been an uncritical narrative of Mongol savagery combined with the idea of the enlightened ruler. The Soviet Marxist historiography of the, 20th century, on the other hand, focused on class relations and Mongol social evolution. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, new works in Britain and America examined global exchange, cultural/economic integration and the emergence of international trade under Mongol rule and rejected the earlier interpretations of Mongol destruction. This historiographical article evaluates and critically formulates the approaches and methods used to study the Mongol Empire over three centuries using a descriptive-analytical approach and a chronological sequence.

کلیدواژه‌ها [English]

  • Historiography
  • Global History
  • Mongol Empire Studies
  • Global Exchanges
  • Orientalism
برادبریج، آن. اف (1399) پادشاهی و ایدئولوژی در دنیای اسلامی-مغولی، ترجمۀ جواد عباسی، تهران: پژوهشکدۀ تاریخ اسلام.
جکسون، پیتر (1383) «وضعیت پژوهش دربارۀ «امپراتوری مغول» (1999-1986م)» ترجمۀ احمد بازماندگان خمیری، کتاب ماه تاریخ و جغرافیا، (81 و 82 و 83)، 115- 98.
خیراندیش، عبدالرسول (1383) »مرزهای کهنه و نو در تحقیقات مغولی»، کتاب ماه تاریخ و جغرافیا تیر و مرداد و شهریور، (83 و 82 و 81)، 7-4.
جوینی، عطاملک (1399) تاریخ جهان‌گشا، به‌تصحیح محمد قزوینی، تهران: هرمس.
عباسی، جواد (1383) «بررسی زوال ایلخانان از زاویه‌ای دیگر، نگاهی به یک پژوهش از چارلز ملویل»، کتاب ماه تاریخ و جغرافیا، (83 و 82 و 81)، 159- 156.
لین، جرج (1390) ایران در اوایل عهد ایلخانی (رنسانس ایرانی)، ترجمۀ سید ابوالفضل رضوی، تهران: امیرکبیر.
لین، جرج (1400) زندگی روزانه در امپراتوری مغول، ترجمۀ سعید درودی، تهران: نگاه.
مورگان، دیوید (1390) مغول‌ها، ترجمۀ عباس مخبر، تهران: مرکز.
ودرفورد، جک (1402) چنگیزخان و ساختن دنیای مدرن، ترجمۀ سیما سلطانی، تهران: نشر مرکز.
ولادیمیرتسف، باریس باکوولیویچ (1386) نظام اجتماعی مغول (فئودالیسم خانه به دوشی)، ترجمۀ شیرین بیانی، تهران: علمی و فرهنگی.
ولادیمیرتسف، باریس باکوولیویچ  (1395) چنگیزخان، ترجمۀ شیرین بیانی، تهران: اساطیر.
 
Allsen, T. T. (1976). "Mongol Rule in East Asia, Twelfth-Fourteenth Centuries: As Assessment of Recent Soviet Scholarship". Mongolian Studies, Vol. 3, pp. 5–27.
Allsen, Thomas, (1987), Mongol Imperialism: The Policies of the Grand Qan Möngke in China, Russia, and the Islamic Lands, 1251-1259, University of California Press.
Allsen, Thomas, (2001), Commodity and Exchange in the Mongol Empire: A Cultural History of Islamic Textiles, Cambridge University Press.
Allsen, Thomas, (2004), Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia, Cambridge University Press.
Ayalon, David, (1971), "The Great Yasa of Chingiz Khan. A Reexamination (Part A)", Studia Islamica, No. 33, pp. 97-140
Biran, Michal, (2007), Chinggis Khan (Makers of The Muslim World), Oxford: Oneworld Publication.
Biran, Michal, (2013), "The Mongol Empire in World History: The State of The Field", History Compass 11/11, pp. 1021–1033.
Biran, Michal; Kim Hodong, (2023), The Cambridge History of the Mongol Empire, 2 Vols. Cambridge University Press.
Broadbridge, Anne. F, (2018), Women and the Making of the Mongol Empire, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Cahun, Léon, (1896), Introduction à l'Histoire de l'Asie: Turcs et Mongols des Origines à 1405, Paris: A. Colin. https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30826g.image.
Cherniavsky, M. (1959). Khan or Basileus: an aspect of Russian mediaeval political theory. Journal of the History of Ideas, 20, 403-420.
Condorcet, Jean-Antoine-Nicolas de Caritat marquis de, (1881), Œuvres Complètes de Voltaire, Tome 44. Garnier frères (Paris).
Constantin D'Ohsson, B. Abraham, (1852), Histoire des Mongols, depuis Tchinguiz-Khan jusqu'à Timour Bey, ou Tamerlan, La Hay et Amsterdam Les fères Van Cleef
De La Croix, François, (1710), Histoire du Grand Genghizcan, Premier Empereur des Anciens Mogols et Tartares, Paris: Dans la Boutique de Claude Barbin..
De Nicola, Bruno, (2017), Women in Mongol Iran: The Khatuns, 1206-1335. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press
Di Cosmo, N., Frank, A., & Golden, P., (Eds.). (2009), The Cambridge History of Inner Asia: The Chinggisid Age, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gay, Peter, (1959), Voltaire’s Politics: The Poet as Realist, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Howorth, Henry H, (1965), History of the Mongols, from the 9th to the 19th Century, New York: B. Franklin.
Huizhu Sun (2000), “Dissident Voltaire’s Intercultural Drama”, Comparative Literature: East & West, 2:1, 78-95,
Hyer, Paul, (1966), "The Re-Evaluation of Chinggis Khan: Its Role in the Sino-Soviet Dispute", Asian Survey, Vol. 6, No. 12 (Dec., 1966), pp. 696-705 
Halperin, Charles, (1982), "Soviet Historiography on Russia and the Mongols", The Russian Review, Vol. 41, No. 3 (Jul., 1982), pp. 306-322
Jackson, Peter, (2000), "The State of Research; The Mongol Empire, 1986–1999", Journal of Medieval History, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 189–210
Kotkin, (1999), "In Search of the Mongols and Mongolia: A Multinational Odyssey", in Mongolia in the Twentieth Century: Landlocked Cosmopolitan, pp. 3-26, edited by Kotkin and Elleman, USA: M.E. Sharpe.
Lane, George, (2003), Early Mongol Rule in Thirteenth-Century Iran: A Persian Renaissance, London and New York: Routledge.
Lane, George, (2006), Daily Life in the Mongol Empire, Bloomsbury Academic.
 Manz, Beatrice Forbes, (1998), Reviewing of Commodity and Exchange in the Mongol Empire; A Cultural History of Islamic Textiles by Thomas T. Allsen in "Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society", Third Series, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 485-48.
May, Timothy, (2007), The Mongol Art of War: Chinggis Khan and the Mongol Military System, Pen & Sword Military.
May, Timothy, (2017), The Mongol Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia, Two Vols. ABC-CLIO: California.
Melville, (1997), "Abu Sa'id and the Revolt of the Amirs in 1319", chapter in L'Iran Face a la Domination Mongole, edited by Aigle, Tehran, pp. 89-120.
Montesquieu, (1824), De l'Esprit des Lois, Paris: La Librairie Stéréotype.
Morgan, (2006), "The Mongol Empire in World History", in Beyond the Legacy of Genghiz Khan, Edited by Linda Komaroff, Vol. 64, Netherlands: Brill.
Morgan, D, (1996), Mongol or Persian: the government of Ilkhanid Iran, Harvard Middle Eastern and Islamic Review, 3, 1/2, pp. 62-76
Morgan, D. (2004). The Mongols in Iran: A Reappraisal. Iran, 42, pp. 131–136. https://doi.org/10.2307/4300668.
Morgan, D. O. (1982). Who Ran the Mongol Empire? Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1, pp. 124–136. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25211311.
Morgan, D. O. (1988). [Review of Mongol Imperialism: The Policies of the Grand Qan Möngke in China, Russia, and the Islamic Lands, 1251–1259, by T. T. Allsen]. Middle East Studies Association Bulletin, 22(1), 51–53. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23060584
Morgan, David, (2007), The Mongols, USA-UK: B. Blackwell Publishing.  
Morgan, David; Stewart, Sara, (2017). The Coming of the Mongols (The Idea of Iran Vol. 7), I.B. Tauris. (Soudavar Memorial Foundation Series).
Paris, Matthew, (2012), Chronica Majora, edited by Henry Richards Luard, Cambridge University Press.
Polyanskaya, O. N. (2014). "At the Origins of Mongolian Studies in Russia: Isaac Jacob Schmidt and Józef Kowalewski". Mongolica. XVII.
Prawdin, Michael, (1952), The Mongol Empire: Its Rise and Legacy, Translated by Edan and Cedar Paul, George Allen and Unwin LTD: London.
Rampolla, Mary Lynn, (2018), A Pocket Guide to Writing in History, Bedford/St. Boston & New York: Martin’s.
Rampolla, M. L. (2012). A Pocket Guide to Writing in History. United States: Bedford/St. Martin's.
Sabiruv, Rustam, (2019), Perceptions of Chinggis Khan and the Mongol Conquests in Contemporary Russia, 日本モンゴル学会紀要(Bulletin of JAMS)第49号.
Vladimirtsov, B. (1948), Le Régime Social des Mongols, le Féodalisme Nomade. Paris: Librairie d'Amérique et d'Orient Adrien-Maisonneuve.
Vladimirtsov, B. (1972). Life of Genghis Khan. (n.p.). Ayer Company Pub
Voltaire, (1750), La Voix du Sage et du Peuple, Amsterdam, chez Le Sincère.
Voltaire, (1753), Le Siècle de Louis XIV, Vve Knoch et J.G. Eslinger (Francfort).
Voltaire, (1764), “Tirannie”, in Dictionnaire Philosophique, pp. 337-8, Londres.
Voltaire, (1802), The Philosophical Dictionary, Unknown Translator, London : Printed for Wynne and Scholey.
Voltaire, (1755), L'orphelin de la Chine: Tragédie, Netherlands: chez Etienne Ledet & Compagnie.
Weatherford, J. M. (2004). Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World. Crown: New York.
Zarakol, Ayşe, (2022), Before the West: The Rise and the Fall of the Eastern World Orders, Cambridge University Press
Zenkovsky, Serge A., (1974). Medieval Russian’s Epics, Chronicles, and Tales. A Meridian Book: United States.
 
 
Abbasi, Javad, (2004), “Another View on the Collapse of Ilkhanids: Reviewing Charles Melville Research”, Ketāb Māh Tārīk̠ va ǰoḡrāfiā, Issue 81, 82 & 83, pp. 156-159 {In Persian}.
Broadbridge, Anne F., (2008), Kingship and Ideology in the Islamic and Mongol Worlds, translated to Persian by Javad Abbasi, Tehran: Pažūheškade Tārīk̠ Islam {In Persian}.
Jackson, Peter, (2000), "The State of Research; The Mongol Empire, 1986–1999", translated to Persian by Ahmad Bazmandegan Khamiri, Ketāb Māh Tārīk̠ va ǰoḡrāfiā, Issue 81, 82 & 83, pp. 98-115 {In Persian}.
ǰūveīnī, ‘Aṭṭā-Malīk, (2012), Tārīk̠-e ǰahān-Gošā, Tehran: Negāh.
Kheirandish, Abd Al-Rasúl, (2004), “New and Old in Mongolian Studies”, Ketāb Māh Tārīk̠ va ǰoḡrāfiā, Issue 81, 82 & 83, pp. 4-7 {In Persian}.
Lane, George, (2011), Early Mongol Rule in Thirteenth-Century Iran: A Persian Renaissance, translated to Persian by Seyyed Abolfazl Razavi, Tehran: Amīr Kabīr {In Persian}.
Lane, George, (2021), Daily Life in the Mongol Empire, translated to Persian by Saeed Doroudi, Tehran: Negāh {In Persian}.
Morgan, David, (2011), The Mongols, translated to Persian by Abbas Mokhber, Tehran: Markaz {In Persian}.
Vladimirtsov, B. (2007), Le Régime Social des Mongols, le Féodalisme Nomade, translated to Persian by Shirin Bayani, Tehran: Entešārāt-e ‘Elmī Farhangī {In Persian}.
Vladimirtsov, B. (2016), Life of Genghis Khan, translated to Persian by Shirin Bayani, Tehran: Asātīr {In Persian}.
Weatherford, Jack, (2024), Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World, translated to Persian by Sima Soltani, Tehran: Markaz {In Persian}.
 
Allsen, T. T. (1976). "Mongol Rule in East Asia, Twelfth-Fourteenth Centuries: As Assessment of Recent Soviet Scholarship". Mongolian Studies, Vol. 3, pp. 5–27.
Allsen, Thomas, (1987), Mongol Imperialism: The Policies of the Grand Qan Möngke in China, Russia, and the Islamic Lands, 1251-1259, University of California Press.
Allsen, Thomas, (2001), Commodity and Exchange in the Mongol Empire: A Cultural History of Islamic Textiles, Cambridge University Press.
Allsen, Thomas, (2004), Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia, Cambridge University Press.
Ayalon, David, (1971), "The Great Yasa of Chingiz Khan. A Reexamination (Part A)", Studia Islamica, No. 33, pp. 97-140
Biran, Michal, (2007), Chinggis Khan (Makers of The Muslim World), Oxford: Oneworld Publication.
Biran, Michal, (2013), "The Mongol Empire in World History: The State of The Field", History Compass 11/11, pp. 1021–1033.
Biran, Michal; Kim Hodong, (2023), The Cambridge History of the Mongol Empire, 2 Vols. Cambridge University Press.
Broadbridge, Anne. F, (2018), Women and the Making of the Mongol Empire, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Cahun, Léon, (1896), Introduction à l'Histoire de l'Asie: Turcs et Mongols des Origines à 1405, Paris: A. Colin. https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30826g.image.
Cherniavsky, M. (1959). Khan or Basileus: an aspect of Russian mediaeval political theory. Journal of the History of Ideas, 20, 403-420.
Condorcet, Jean-Antoine-Nicolas de Caritat marquis de, (1881), Œuvres Complètes de Voltaire, Tome 44. Garnier frères (Paris).
Constantin D'Ohsson, B. Abraham, (1852), Histoire des Mongols, depuis Tchinguiz-Khan jusqu'à Timour Bey, ou Tamerlan, La Hay et Amsterdam Les fères Van Cleef
De La Croix, François, (1710), Histoire du Grand Genghizcan, Premier Empereur des Anciens Mogols et Tartares, Paris: Dans la Boutique de Claude Barbin..
De Nicola, Bruno, (2017), Women in Mongol Iran: The Khatuns, 1206-1335. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press
Di Cosmo, N., Frank, A., & Golden, P., (Eds.). (2009), The Cambridge History of Inner Asia: The Chinggisid Age, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gay, Peter, (1959), Voltaire’s Politics: The Poet as Realist, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Howorth, Henry H, (1965), History of the Mongols, from the 9th to the 19th Century, New York: B. Franklin.
Huizhu Sun (2000), “Dissident Voltaire’s Intercultural Drama”, Comparative Literature: East & West, 2:1, 78-95,
Hyer, Paul, (1966), "The Re-Evaluation of Chinggis Khan: Its Role in the Sino-Soviet Dispute", Asian Survey, Vol. 6, No. 12 (Dec., 1966), pp. 696-705 
Halperin, Charles, (1982), "Soviet Historiography on Russia and the Mongols", The Russian Review, Vol. 41, No. 3 (Jul., 1982), pp. 306-322
Jackson, Peter, (2000), "The State of Research; The Mongol Empire, 1986–1999", Journal of Medieval History, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 189–210
Kotkin, (1999), "In Search of the Mongols and Mongolia: A Multinational Odyssey", in Mongolia in the Twentieth Century: Landlocked Cosmopolitan, pp. 3-26, edited by Kotkin and Elleman, USA: M.E. Sharpe.
Lane, George, (2003), Early Mongol Rule in Thirteenth-Century Iran: A Persian Renaissance, London and New York: Routledge.
Lane, George, (2006), Daily Life in the Mongol Empire, Bloomsbury Academic.
 Manz, Beatrice Forbes, (1998), Reviewing of Commodity and Exchange in the Mongol Empire; A Cultural History of Islamic Textiles by Thomas T. Allsen in "Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society", Third Series, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 485-48.
May, Timothy, (2007), The Mongol Art of War: Chinggis Khan and the Mongol Military System, Pen & Sword Military.
May, Timothy, (2017), The Mongol Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia, Two Vols. ABC-CLIO: California.
Melville, (1997), "Abu Sa'id and the Revolt of the Amirs in 1319", chapter in L'Iran Face a la Domination Mongole, edited by Aigle, Tehran, pp. 89-120.
Montesquieu, (1824), De l'Esprit des Lois, Paris: La Librairie Stéréotype.
Morgan, (2006), "The Mongol Empire in World History", in Beyond the Legacy of Genghiz Khan, Edited by Linda Komaroff, Vol. 64, Netherlands: Brill.
Morgan, D, (1996), Mongol or Persian: the government of Ilkhanid Iran, Harvard Middle Eastern and Islamic Review, 3, 1/2, pp. 62-76
Morgan, D. (2004). The Mongols in Iran: A Reappraisal. Iran, 42, pp. 131–136. https://doi.org/10.2307/4300668.
Morgan, D. O. (1982). Who Ran the Mongol Empire? Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1, pp. 124–136. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25211311.
Morgan, D. O. (1988). [Review of Mongol Imperialism: The Policies of the Grand Qan Möngke in China, Russia, and the Islamic Lands, 1251–1259, by T. T. Allsen]. Middle East Studies Association Bulletin, 22(1), 51–53. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23060584
Morgan, David, (2007), The Mongols, USA-UK: B. Blackwell Publishing.  
Morgan, David; Stewart, Sara, (2017). The Coming of the Mongols (The Idea of Iran Vol. 7), I.B. Tauris. (Soudavar Memorial Foundation Series).
Paris, Matthew, (2012), Chronica Majora, edited by Henry Richards Luard, Cambridge University Press.
Polyanskaya, O. N. (2014). "At the Origins of Mongolian Studies in Russia: Isaac Jacob Schmidt and Józef Kowalewski". Mongolica. XVII.
Prawdin, Michael, (1952), The Mongol Empire: Its Rise and Legacy, Translated by Edan and Cedar Paul, George Allen and Unwin LTD: London.
Rampolla, Mary Lynn, (2018), A Pocket Guide to Writing in History, Bedford/St. Boston & New York: Martin’s.
Rampolla, M. L. (2012). A Pocket Guide to Writing in History. United States: Bedford/St. Martin's.
Sabiruv, Rustam, (2019), Perceptions of Chinggis Khan and the Mongol Conquests in Contemporary Russia, 日本モンゴル学会紀要(Bulletin of JAMS)第49号.
Vladimirtsov, B. (1948), Le Régime Social des Mongols, le Féodalisme Nomade. Paris: Librairie d'Amérique et d'Orient Adrien-Maisonneuve.
Vladimirtsov, B. (1972). Life of Genghis Khan. (n.p.). Ayer Company Pub
Voltaire, (1750), La Voix du Sage et du Peuple, Amsterdam, chez Le Sincère.
Voltaire, (1753), Le Siècle de Louis XIV, Vve Knoch et J.G. Eslinger (Francfort).
Voltaire, (1764), “Tirannie”, in Dictionnaire Philosophique, pp. 337-8, Londres.
Voltaire, (1802), The Philosophical Dictionary, Unknown Translator, London : Printed for Wynne and Scholey.
Voltaire, (1755), L'orphelin de la Chine: Tragédie, Netherlands: chez Etienne Ledet & Compagnie.
Weatherford, J. M. (2004). Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World. Crown: New York.
Zarakol, Ayşe, (2022), Before the West: The Rise and the Fall of the Eastern World Orders, Cambridge University Press
Zenkovsky, Serge A., (1974). Medieval Russian’s Epics, Chronicles, and Tales. A Meridian Book: United States.